TEHRAN -- Susa, known as Shush in modern Persian, is an ancient city in southwestern Iran, situated in Khuzestan Province, approximately 20 km south of Dezful and 50 km west of Shushtar.
It lies on the archaeologically rich Susiana Plain, nestled in the lower Zagros Mountains – an area shaped by the pediment erosion and fluvial deposits of the Karun, Dez, and Karkheh rivers.
Three major rivers, alongside smaller ones like the Shavur River, which flows along the eastern bank of ancient Susa, have made the lowlands of Khuzestan exceptionally fertile, facilitating the development of agriculture.
The significance of these waterways in the city’s establishment is evident by the fact that Susa was founded at the narrowest stretch between the Dez and Karkheh rivers, a mere 12 kilometers wide, with the Shavur River running parallel between them.
These rivers, combined with canals, not only provided abundant water but also served as natural defenses against external threats to the city. To enhance protection and mitigate flooding, the earliest urban settlements were constructed on elevated mounds.
Archaeologists estimate that the oldest traces of a rudimentary Neolithic settlement date back some nine thousand years, evolving into a fully-fledged city by the 5th millennium BC, almost seven thousand years ago.
This makes Susa one of the world’s earliest cities and the oldest city in Iran, despite other contenders like Ray (now part of Tehran province), Kashan, Yazd, and Hamadan occasionally being credited with this distinction.
However, these other cities are recognized based on archaeological evidence of obscure settlements with unknown original names, unclear urban development, and no definitive proof of continuous habitation.
On the other hand, there is concrete archaeological evidence confirming that Susa was a large ancient city. Written records show that its name has remained unchanged from the earliest days of human literacy to the present, supported by historical sources that attest to continuous, uninterrupted settlement
The Susiana Plain also includes two other archaeological sites, Chogha Bonut and Chogha Mish, whose origins date to a similar or even earlier period than Susa’s, but both were abandoned thousands of years ago.
Broadly speaking, the origins of Susa can be divided into three phases: a Neolithic village beginning around 7000 BC; growth into a prehistoric city, known as Susa I, around 4500 BC – before the advent of writing; and further development into an ancient city, Susa II, featuring proto-writing around 3500 BC.
Radiocarbon (C-14) dating indicates that the urban settlement was established as early as 4395 BC. With an area of approximately 15 hectares, it ranked among the largest cities of its time.
Shortly after its foundation, Susa became the regional center of what is now central Khuzestan Province. The surrounding region took its name – Susiana – from the city of Susa itself.
This region is often mistakenly conflated with Elam, an ancient civilization that originated in the interior of the Iranian Plateau, in present-day southern Fars province.
In reality, Susiana and Elam were distinct entities. Their political histories first intersected after the Elamites conquered Susa around 2000 BC, and the two ultimately merged after the Elamites fled to Susiana before invading Iranian tribes several centuries later.
Two significant discoveries – a vast cemetery and a mud-brick platform topped by the remains of a local ceremonial center – suggest that Susa I’s role as a religious center was a major factor in its growth and regional importance.
Elaborately painted ceramics and intricately carved stamp seals depicting complex scenes link the material culture of Susa I to the Iranian highlands, setting Susian artifacts apart from those of contemporary cultures flourishing to the west in southern Mesopotamia.
Around 3500 BC, Susa entered a transformative phase known as Susa II, marking the transition from prehistory to history. This period saw the introduction of writing, cylinder seals, mass-produced plain ceramics, and a variety of new stone and metal artifacts, reflecting significant technological and cultural advances.
The ancient city appeared to be organized into three distinct sectors: the Acropolis or High City, the Palace, and the city proper, which included the residential quarters.
The Acropolis contained a sacred area known as the kizzum, dominated by a towering ziggurat – a multi-storied stepped structure regarded as a quintessential Elamite monument before being adopted by the Mesopotamians.
Susa eventually became the capital of the Elamite civilization, a formidable culture that rivaled the great Mesopotamian cities of Sumer and Babylon. Its strategic location made it a vital trade hub, connecting Mesopotamia with the Iranian Plateau.
Thousands of valuable artifacts from the Elamite period have been uncovered and are now preserved in museums throughout Iran and across the globe, including notable pieces like the famous Code of Hammurabi stele.
Following the conquest of Elam by ancient Iranian powers, Susa rose to prominence as one of the four capitals of the Achaemenid Empire, alongside Persepolis, Pasargadae, and Ecbatana.
Darius I commissioned the construction of the Apadana Palace in Susa, a grand ceremonial hall supported by 72 columns, several of which still stand today, used for royal events and gatherings.
Owing to its milder climate, Susa served as the empire’s winter capital.
Subsequently, the city came under Seleucid, Parthian, and Sassanid control, retaining its status as an important regional center. During the Islamic era, Susa thrived as a bustling trade hub but suffered decline after the devastating Mongol invasions of the 13th century.
Today, in addition to its ancient archaeological remains, visitors can explore notable landmarks such as the French Castle, built by French archaeologists during their excavations, and the Tomb of Daniel, a shrine traditionally believed to house the biblical Prophet Daniel’s remains.
The tomb is distinguished by its unique conical dome and attracts numerous pilgrims.
In recognition of its immense historical and cultural significance, Susa was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2015, highlighting its invaluable contribution to understanding the ancient Near East’s history and development.